Chapter 6

RULE 1: The base of esse in the future and imperfect tenses is er-.

RULE 2: Pot- + sum/esse = "to be able, can"

RULE 3: -t + s- = -ss-

I. Grammar

This chapter entails, for the most part, review and the application of common sense, a good thing, too, since students will take their first test after they have completed this lesson.

A. Future and Imperfect Forms of Sum

It is best to have students simply memorize the future and imperfect forms of sum rather than trying to explain to them the irregularities of this verb which is the result of composite conjugation. Pronounce the forms for students and have them repeat after you. If you haven't already, explain that the imperfect tense shows continuous, repeated, in-progress or habitual action in the past and can be rendered in English several ways: "was/were X-ing", "used to X", "kept (on) X-ing," "often/usually X-ed" and even just "X-ed."

B. Possum

Explain the formation of possum as pot- + sum, es, est, etc., noting especially that -t- plus -s- becomes -ss-. The infinitive, posse, is a conflated form of pot + esse—potesse is, in fact, attested in early Latin—thus, possum means literally "I am able", which is the best translation for students to learn since this translation requires a "complementary infinitive" in English, just as its Latin counterpart does. The translation "I can" can be more confusing, since "can" is a modal and does not require an infinitive. Tell students that, if they encounter "can" when they are translating from English to Latin, they should first change it to "is/are able" and then form the Latin. By doing this, they will remember that possum requires a complementary infinitive; cf. debeo which is more easily translated as "ought (to X)" rather than "should (X)".

C. The History of the Future and Imperfect Tenses

The imperfect forms of esse originated as *es-a-m/s/t/..., changing by rhotacism to eram/s/t... An -a- in verb forms marks the past tense elsewhere in Indo-European languages. The future forms developed in a similar way: *es-i-o/s/... rhotacized to ero/eris/erit. -i- was originally a subjunctive marker (see above, Chapter 5). The Indo-European pot- base shows up in Greek also, e.g. posis "master."

D. Test 1

An example of Test 1 (plus answers) follows this chapter, and should be handed out to students several class days before the test. Encourage students to attempt the test as soon as they've finished Chapter 6 and ask any questions they have concerning the material or the directions. Assign them to do the self-check exercises in the back of Wheelock also (pp. 287-91, 324-8), which provide additional study for the test. Sample tests always reflect exactly the breakdown of points on the various sections of the test. In other words, if 30 points are given for a section on the sample test, the section will count 30 points on the test itself.

II. Vocabulary

liber: The adjective liber ("free") does not contract (cf. liberty), but the noun liber ("book") does (cf. library). Call to the students' attention these similar-looking but very different words. Confusion of these words, and other similar-looking words, can throw off the translation of a whole sentence. [Latin liber and Greek eleutheros are cognate.]

tyrannus: A word borrowed directly from Greek, which in turn inherited it from the Greeks' predecessors in the Aegean area. That is, it is a non-Indo-European word.

vitium: Here, derivatives can mislead. Words like vitamin, vital, and invite come from other stems. Vice, vicious and vitiate derive from this word, which are little help to students who usually aren't familiar with these words and to whom the true derivatives do not look or sound similar. So, call vitium to their attention, warn them of the possibility for misunderstanding and remind them of its nominative/accusative plural form which ends in -a.

Graecus: Graecus, listed by Wheelock as a noun here, is a substantive. [The reason that the Romans called the Hellenes Graeci is uncertain. They may have picked up the name from the Illyrians, one of the first eastern peoples with whom the Roman had extensive contact and who may have called some Hellenic group by a name related to Graeci.]

vester: Like noster, this adjective contracts.

-que: An enclitic (cf. -ne), cognate with Greek -te, cf. quis = tis, quattuor = tettares. Students have trouble with this simple form, so be sure to explain it fully and clearly. I put this diagram on the board: English "X and Y and Z" = Latin X et Y et Z = Latin X Yque Zque. In effect, -que puts an "and" in front of the word to which it is attached at the back. I tell students to "flip it over" and put in front of the word it sits behind.

ubi: The correlative (answer) of ubi is ibi (see recognition vocabulary, below). The Romans conceived the world in four dimensions, such that a question with ubi implied to them both "at what place" and "at what time." From an English speaker's perspective, then, it appears that ubi means two things: "when" and "where." [The ending -bi derives from an Indo-European ending -dhi which comes into Greek as -thi, e.g. autothi ("on the spot"). The base u- was originally cu-, seen in some compounds, e.g. alicubi and necubi. The cu- base originated as *qwu- which came into Greek as pou, cf. pente = quinque, leipo = linquo.]

insidiae: A plural noun in Latin corresponding to a singular one in English is a difference seen more than once. The Romans frequently expressed abstract concepts in the plural, cf. animi (Chapter 5) and hostes, whereas we use the singular. Here, insidiae (literally, "sittings on") corresponds to treachery, presumably because treacherous people "sat in" wait to ambush their foes. I like to point out to students the paranoia behind this sort of expression: "They're out there lying in wait for me—they're behind every bush and under every rock—I know they're there." The slightest glimpse at Roman history will confirm the sanity of this "paranoid" perspective, like the infamous truism: "It's not paranoia if they're really after you."

III. Sentences

Practice and Review

[Focus on those sentences (2-4) which contain possum and complementary infinitives.]

1. Is this a plug for ophthamologists? Let the laughter die down, and ask them what case curâ is and why. Make sure the students don't translate cura as "cure".

6. If sexist, the comment is certainly worthy of a Roman elegiac poet!
7. sapientiae is a partitive genitive.

11. Remind students to put igitur in the postpositive position.
12. "Men" can be translated using vir or a masculine substantive.

14. Make sure the students put the -que after the second noun.

IV. Test 1: Review