In longer papers—essays and research papers, in particular—it's necessary to structure your argument in such a way it's accessible and persuasive to your reader. That involves laying it out ahead of time in an introduction so that the reader knows where the paper is heading, and also summarizing it at the end in a conclusion which drives your point home.
Introductions and conclusions are strictly required in formal, persuasive essays and, while other sorts of papers do not necessarily have to include them, it's often helpful. In any case, whatever type of paper you're writing, you should make the flow of your thinking clear somehow. In other words, it always matters the way the facts you cite feed into your argument. In particular, pay careful attention to transitions between paragraphs. Different topics should blend together smoothly. Use the theme of your paper to link them.
24. Introduction and Conclusion
These represent the most serious omission students regularly make. Every essay or paper designed to be persuasive needs a paragraph at the very outset introducing both the subject at hand and the thesis which is being advanced. It also needs a final paragraph summarizing what's been said and driving the author's argument home.
These are not arbitrary requirements. Introductions and conclusions are crucial in persuasive writing. They put the facts to be cited into a coherent structure and give them meaning. Even more important, they make the argument readily accessible to readers and remind them of that purpose from start to end.
Think of it this way. As the writer of an essay, you're essentially a lawyer arguing in behalf of a client (your thesis) before a judge (the reader) who will decide the case (agree or disagree with you). So, begin as a lawyer would, by laying out the facts to the judge in the way you think it will help your client best. Like lawyers in court, you should make an "opening statement," in this case, an introduction. Then review the facts of the case in detail just as lawyers question witnesses and submit evidence during a trial. This process of presentation and cross-examination is equivalent to the "body" of your essay. Finally, end with a "closing statement"—that is, the conclusion of your essay—arguing as strongly as possible in favor of your client's case, namely, your theme.
Likewise, there are several things your paper is not. It's not a murder mystery, for instance, full of surprising plot twists or unexpected revelations. Those really don't go over well in this arena. Instead, lay everything out ahead of time so the reader can follow your argument easily. Nor is a history paper an action movie with exciting chases down dark corridors where the reader has no idea how things are going to end. In academic writing it's best to tell the reader from the outset what your conclusion will be. This, too, makes your argument easier to follow. Finally, it's not a love letter. Lush sentiment and starry-eyed praise don't work well here. They make it look like your emotions are in control, not your intellect, and that will do you little good in this enterprise where facts, not dreams, rule.
All in all, persuasive writing grips the reader though its clarity and the force with which the data bring home the thesis. The point is to give your readers no choice but to adopt your way of seeing things, to lay out your theme so strongly they have to agree with you. That means you must be clear, forthright and logical. That's the way good lawyers win their cases.
A. How to Write an Introduction
The introduction of a persuasive essay or paper must be substantial. Having finished it, the reader ought to have a very clear idea of the author's purpose in writing. To wit, after reading the introduction, I tend to stop and ask myself where I think the rest of the paper is headed, what the individual paragraphs in its body will address and what the general nature of the conclusion will be. If I'm right, it's because the introduction has laid out in clear and detailed fashion the theme and the general facts which the author will use to support it.
Let me give you an example of what I mean. The following is an introduction of what turned out to be a well-written paper, but the introduction was severely lacking:
"The role of women has changed over the centuries, and it has also differed from civilization to civilization. Some societies have treated women much like property, while others have allowed women to have great influence and power."
Not a bad introduction really, but rather scant. I have no idea, for instance, which societies will be discussed or what the theme of the paper will be. That is, while I can see what the general topic is, I still don't know the way the writer will draw the facts together, or even really what the paper is arguing in favor of.
As it turned out, the author of this paper discussed women in ancient Egypt, classical Greece, medieval France and early Islamic civilization and stressed their variable treatment in these societies. This writer also focused on the political, social and economic roles women have played in Western cultures and the various ways they have found to assert themselves and circumvent opposition based on gender.
Given that, I would rewrite the introduction this way:
The role of women (in Western society) has changed (dramatically) over the centuries, (from the repression of ancient Greece to the relative freedom of women living in Medieval France. The treatment of women) has also differed from civilization to civilization (even at the same period in history). Some societies (such as Islamic ones) have treated women much like property, while others (like ancient Egypt) have allowed women to have great influence and power. (This paper will trace the development of women's rights and powers from ancient Egypt to late medieval France and explore their changing political, social and economic situation through time. All the various means women have used to assert themselves show the different ways they have fought against repression and established themselves in authority.)
Now it is clear which societies will be discussed (Egypt, Greece, France, Islam) and what the general theme of the paper will be (the variable paths to empowerment women have found over time) along with the type of information that will be presented (political, social and economic). Now I know where this paper is going and what it's really about.
B. How to Write a Conclusion
In much the same way that the introduction lays out the thesis for the reader, the conclusion of the paper should reiterate the main points—it should never introduce new ideas or things not discussed in the body of the paper!—and bring the argument home. The force with which you express the theme here is especially important, because if you're ever going to convince the reader that your thesis has merit, it will be in the conclusion. In other words, just as lawyers win their cases in the closing argument, this is the point where you'll persuade others to adopt your thesis.
If the theme is clear and makes sense, the conclusion ought to be very easy to write. Simply begin by restating the theme, then review the facts you cited in the body of the paper in support of your ideas—and it's advisable to rehearse them in some detail—and end with a final reiteration of the theme. Try, however, not to repeat the exact language you used elsewhere in the paper, especially the introduction, or it will look like you haven't explored all aspects of the situation (see #7).
All in all, remember these are the last words your reader will hear from you before passing judgment on your argument. Make them as focused and forceful as possible.
25. Rough Transitions
Sometimes I read papers that move so rapidly and violently between topics I feel as if the writer is jerking my head from one side to the other. Believe me, if it's possible to get whiplash from reading, I've had it! And frankly, if some writers whose work I've read drive on the road the way they careen through their papers, their cars must be seriously scraped up and their passengers in shock, if still alive. Instead, here are some hints on how to write an essay that corners smoothly and safely changes lanes.
The guiding force behind every well-constructed paper is the theme, the central question or issue to which the writer is responding. Everything in the paper should be directed at and connected to that theme (see #26). Bear in mind, too, that even when the link between the theme and the facts you're citing seems clear to you-the-writer, it may not be to me-the-reader. The theme must be reinforced often, more frequently than you might think, at the very least once every paragraph.
When it isn't, rough transitions will undoubtedly occur, especially between paragraphs. What's happened in this case is the writer has become so engrossed in recounting the facts he's forgotten to point out their relevance to the issue at hand. The paper lurches abruptly from one set of facts to another without tying them to the theme. Writers, instead, should reinforce in the reader's mind what underlies the citation of these facts, what holds them all together, and that is, of course, the theme. The lesson is, use the theme to tie paragraphs together and, thus, link the facts to one another.
Let me show you what I mean. Suppose that you're writing about the importance of women in Western Europe. And, in the course of that paper, you've chosen to discuss Roman women and Medieval queens. So you write:
"...Finally, Livia, the wife of Augustus, dominated Roman politics toward the end of her husband's life. She was responsible for the succession of her son Tiberius, who was not Augustus' child, and through Tiberius all but ruled the Roman state during the early part of his reign.
"Eleanor of Aquitaine controlled much of southern France which she had inherited from her father. In marrying Henry II, she brought with her a power and authority which even her husband, the king of England, could not defy—indeed, dared not defy, at least not publicly!—..."
The problem here is the rough transition between Livia and Eleanor as data cited in support of the prominence of women in Western civilization. What's been forgotten is the theme, the reason these women are being discussed at all, namely, the argument that women throughout history have asserted their authority through unconventional means to gain and maintain power.
Instead, use the theme to bridge transitions between different facts, or bodies of fact:
"Finally, Livia, the wife of Augustus, dominated Roman politics toward the end of her husband's life. She was responsible for the succession of her son Tiberius, who was not Augustus' child, and through Tiberius all but ruled the Roman state during the early part of his reign. Thus, certain Roman women like Livia possessed great power and were not afraid to use their authority in maintaining control of their world.
"Medieval women prove little different, some of whom were quite powerful, too. Eleanor of Aquitaine, for instance, controlled much of southern France which she had inherited from her father. In marrying Henry II, she brought with her a power and authority which even her husband, the king of England, could not defy—indeed, dared not defy, at least not publicly!—..."
What I added to the paragraph above (in bold) is probably only what the writer was thinking when he wrote it. The point is, he forgot to say it, and it needs to be said.
There's a larger lesson here at hand, too. The theme is the most important element in any paper and, as such, should command the greatest share of attention. It needs to be repeated often—granted, in different wording, so don't just write the very same thing ten times (see #27)!—because you need to remind the reader why the facts you're citing pertain to your paper. And, especially at transitions, restate the theme in order to bridge the gap between paragraphs as you shift focus from one group of facts to another. In other words, turn corners gently, brake smoothly and, when you change lanes, look ahead and behind. No one wants to ride with a reckless writer.